lements of 

English 



RICKER 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



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Gfpji Gopijrig'fit t)a, 

Shelf .. UN- 
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH 



AN 



INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS 



/ 



GEORGE HODGDON RICKER, A.M. 



>f? 



r 





CHICAGO 
THE INTERSTATE PUBLISHING COMPANY 

Boston : 30 Franklin Street 






Copyright, 1887, 
By G. H. RICKER. 



Electrotvped bv J. S. Clshing & Co., Boston. 



PREFACE. 



No subject taught in our schools is more interesting, 
or better adapted to awaken thought in the youthful 
mind, than that of language, when properly presented. 

This little bodk has been written with the hope of 
making this branch of school study less difficult, more 
attractive, and more useful to young pupils. 

The work is elementary. It is designed to be used 
in the lower grades of schools, and to prepare the 
pupil for the study of larger works on language and 
grammar. 

It consists of a series of lessons, treating of the 
parts of speech and their uses, of the simple sentence 
in its various forms, fully illustrated by practical 
exercises composed of common words in daily use, so 
that pupils are gradually, and almost unconsciously, 
led on to a knowledge of the correct use of their own 
language. 

It also contains practical lessons on spelling, capital 
letters, and punctuation. 



4 PREFACE. 

Directions for letter-writing are briefly and clearly 
stated and illustrated. 

The principles of analysis and synthesis are concisely 
stated, followed by brief methods of parsing. 

Of the merits of the book, use in the schoolroom 
must be the test. 

G. H. R. 

Melrose, Mass., January, 1887. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Statements, Questions, Commands, and Exclamations 9 

Capital Letters and Punctuation 11 

Classification : Name-words or Nouns 12 

Proper Nouns 14 

Common Nouns 15 

Pronouns 17 

Verbs 19 

Adjectives 20 

Articles 23 

Adverbs 24 

Prepositions , 26 

Conjunctions 29 

Interjections — 31 

Summary 33 

Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter Nouns 34 

Number of Nouns 35 

Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter Pronouns 36 

Number of Pronouns 38 

Use of the Verb ! 39 

Comparison of Adjectives 41 

Classes of Adverbs 44 

Comparison of Adverbs 45 

Use of the Preposition 47 

Use of Conjunctions 48 



6 CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Rules for Spelling 50 

Capital Letters 52 

Punctuation . 55 

The Sentence — Subject and Predicate — Kinds of Sentences, 59 

Predicate Nouns and Predicate Adjectives 61 

The Object of the Verb 63 

Phrases used as Modifiers 65 

The Interrogative Sentence 67 

The Imperative Sentence 68 

The Exclamatory Sentence 69 

The Paragraph 70 

Letter-Writing 73 

Date, Superscription, etc 74 

Folding, etc 77 

Abbreviations 78 

Stamp and Address 80 

Relative Pronouns 82 

Interrogative Pronouns 84 

Present, Past, and Future Time 85 

The Infinitive and the Participle 86 

Elements of a Sentence 89 

Analysis 90 

Synthesis, or Combination of Simple Sentences 93 

Expansion 94 

A Brief Method of Parsing 96 

Another Method of Parsing 98 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH. 



Elements of English. 



INTRODUCTORY : LANGUAGE. 

Language is the expression of thought by means 
of words. 

Words are of two kinds, — spoken and written or 



This book treats of the English language as it is 
used by good speakers and writers of the present day. 



LESSON I. 

STATEMENTS, QUESTIONS, COMMANDS, AND 
EXCLAMATIONS. 

Words may be so combined as to form statements, 
questions, commands, and exclamations. 

A statement is something said or asserted. It con- 
sists of two parts, — a subject and a predicate. 

The subject names the person or thing of which 
something is said or asserted. The predicate tells 
what is said or asserted of the subject. 



IO STATEMENTS. 

In the statement children play, children is the subject, 
because it names that of which something is said or 
asserted ; and play is the predicate, because it tells 
what is said or asserted of the subject. 



STATEMENTS. 



Subjects. 



Some girls 
The sun 
The boys 
The peach 
My friend 
John 



study. 

shines. 

go to school. 

is delicious. 

wrote a letter. 

lives in Boston. 



Predicates. 



EXERCISE. 

Tell the subject and predicate in each statement. 



i. The birds sing. 

2. John goes to school. 

3. The flower is beautiful. 

4. The boys walked to church. 

5. Trees grow. 

6. Love conquers. 

7. The oranges are sweet. 

8. The horse neighs. 

9. Rain falls. 

10. The girls sing sweetly. 



11. Mary is happy. 

12. Hens lay eggs. 

13. Boys play ball. 

14. Flowers bloom in spring. 

15. Apples grow on trees. 

16. Words are of two kinds. 

17. I live in the country. 

18. Boston is a city. 

19. Horses run fast. 

20. Vessels sail on the sea. 



CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION. XI 

LESSON II. 
CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION. 

Begin with a capital letter : — 

i. The first word of a statement. 

2. The special names of persons or places. 

3. The names of the months and of the days of the week. 

4. The words / and O should be capitals. 

PUNCTUATION. 

Place a period (.) after a statement or a command. 
Place an interrogation point (?) after a question. 
Place an exclamation point (!) after an exclamation. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Write five statements, and apply the directions for 
capital letters and punctuation. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Select the statements, questions, commands, and excla- 
mations, and punctuate them. 

1. Carpenters build houses/ 5. Are the cherries ripe? 

2. Some boys study/ 6. Come to me/ 

3. How it rains 7. Are the girls happy I 

4. Do birds sing 8. How the wind blows* 

EXERCISE 3. 

Write five questions, five commands, and five excla- 
mations, and apply the directions for capital letters and 
punctuation. 



I2 NAME-WORDS OR NOUNS. 

LESSON III. 

CLASSIFICATION: NAME- WORDS OR NOUNS. 

Words are classified according to their meaning 
and use. 

Many words are the names of objects; as, book, slate, 
pencil, bird, Jiouse, tree, JoJui, Jane. 

Note. — Do not mistake the word expressing the name of an 
object for the object itself. 

Objects are things which we can see, hear, feel, taste, 
smell, or think about. 

Note. — The teacher may require the pupils to name several 
objects in the schoolroom and elsewhere, and tell something about 
them. 

The names of objects are called name-words. 
They are also called nouns. 
Definition. — A noun is a name. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Name the nouns in the following statements : — 

Harold met cows, horses, and lambs. 
Charles, Cora, and Dora go to school. 



Alice Cary writes well. 
Grace May sings sweetly. 
Charles Henry Lee is a good boy. 



NAME-WORDS OR NOUNS. 



13 



Punctuation. — When two or more nouns are used 
successively in the same way, place a comma (,) after 
each, except the last. 

Capitals. — When the special name of a person or 
place consists of two or more words, begin each word 
with a capital letter ; as, William Henry Johnson, 
Boston Common. 

When the first letter of a special name is used for 
the full name it should be a capital, and should be 
followed by a period; as, J. B. Gough == John B. Gough. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Fill the blanks with suitable nouns. 

saw , , and . 

, , and study geography. 

3. walks gracefully. 

4. is very happy. 

5. reads and writes. 

6. , , and are in the . 

7. wrote me a . 

can play the . 

In the we eat . 

EXERCISE 3. 

Write five statements similar to those above, and apply 
the directions for punctuation and the use of capital letters. 



I4 PROPER NOUNS. 

LESSON IV. 

PROPER NOUNS. 

When we select some particular one of a class of 
objects and give it a special name, we call it a proper 
noun. To one particular boy we give the special name 
George to distinguish him from other boys. To one 
particular city we give the special name Boston to dis- 
tinguish it from other cities. 

Definition. — A proper noun is a special name for 
one of a class. 

A proper noun should always begin with a capital 
letter ; as, George, Mary, Boston, Albany, March, Mon- 
day. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Mention several proper nouns : names of persons or places. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Name the proper nouns in the f ollowing statements : — 

i. Albert has gone to New 5. Melrose is a pleasant town. 

York. 6. John is a good boy. 

2. Martha lives in Philadel- 7. December is a cold 

phia. month. 

3. Edwin returned from Chi- 8. Harold is in town. 

cago last Thursday. 9. Dora lives in Boston. 

4. Lowell is a large city. 10. Jane is going to Salem. 



COMMON NOUNS. 

EXERCISE 3. 

Fill the blanks with proper nouns. 

• goes to . 6. is a good girl. 

• will return to . 7 

■ is a large city. 8 

• works in . 9 

is in every day. 10, 

EXERCISE 4. 



15 



studies arithmetic, 
goes to school, 
is a large town, 
is an ancient city. 



Write five statements and five questions, each containing 
two proper nouns, — one the name of a person, the other 
the name of a place. 



LESSON V. 

COMMON NOUNS. 

When a word is used to name any one or all of a 
class, we call it a common noun ; as, man, horse, 
house, trees, birds, books, etc. 

Definition. — A common noun is a general name 
for any one or all of a class. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Name the common nouns and proper nouns. 

1. The books lie on the table. 3. Martha goes to school. 

2. The papers are left at the 4. Jane studies geography. 

door. 5. The stars shine by night. 



i6 



COMMON NOUNS. 



6. Ada sings in the choir. 

7. Arithmetic is a useful study. 

8. The dog follows his mas- 

ter. 

9. Birds build nests. 



10. Providence is a city. 

11. Sarah teaches in Boston. 

12. Horses art; useful animals. 

13. Dora plays the organ. 

14. Boys write with pens. 



EXERCISE 2. 

Fill the blanks with common nouns. 



1. Horses draw heavy . 

2. John studies his a 

home. 

3. Exercise strengthens the 

4. Boys and recite to- 

gether. 

5. and girls recite to- 
gether. 

6. paint beautiful 

7. Hens lay in . 

8. Charles is a good . 

9. Oxen draw . 

10. Bees gather . 

1 1 . Birds build . 



12. Girls draw with . 

13. Some are fragrant. 

14. Ella plays the . 

15. Boys write with . 

16. Cats catch . 

17. John called his and 

gave him a . 

18. I have read this and 

like it very much. 

19. Birds build in the 

20. live in the and 

eat . 

21. We study that we 

may learn about . 



EXERCISE 3. 

Write five statements and five questions, each containing 
one common noun or more. 



PRONOUNS. iy 

LESSON VI. 

PRONOUNS. 

There is a class of words used instead of nouns. 
These words are called pronouns. 

They are /, you, he, she, it, we, they, my, our, your, 
their, me, him, her, his, and them. 

Definition. — A pronoun is a word used instead 
of a noun. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Name the pronouns and the nouns for which they are 
used. 

i. Harold studies that he may acquire knowledge. 

2. Mabel exercises that she may enjoy health. 

3. How blessings brighten as they take their flight ! 

4. Mary has books, and she will lend the?n. 

Note. — Pronouns are used to avoid repeating the noun. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Name the pronouns, and the nouns which they represent. 

1. Harold met Egbert and invited him to his home. 

2. Joseph and William are good boys; they study their les- 

sons faithfully. 

3. Alice studies that she may learn. 

4. Some boys read good books that they may become wise. 

5. Bees flit from flower to flower that they may gather honey. 



^ PRONOUNS. 

6. Robins are beautiful birds ; they sing sweetly. 

7. Some pupils study their lessons faithfully. 

8. Lillian lost her glove, but she soon found it. 

9. John left his book in his desk. 

10. Mary found her basket and filled it with flowers. 

EXERCISE 3. 

Place pronouns where you find nouns improperly repeated. 

1. Children must exercise that children may have health. 

2. Girls study that girls may learn. 

3. Men build houses that men may have homes. 

4. Henry lights a lamp that Henry may see to study. 

5. Dora studies that Dora may become wise. 

6. John lost John's book, but afterward John found it. 

7. Jane lost Jane's glove, but Jane soon found it. 

8. The teacher asked Mary where Mary found Mary's book. 

9. Apples are so plentiful that apples are very cheap. 

10. The teacher called Ruth to her, and asked Ruth what Ruth 

was doing. 

11. Jonathan lost my sister's glove, but Jonathan's cousin 

found it. 

12. The boys took the boys' skates and went to the pond. 

13. Men work very hard that men may earn money to sup- 

port men's families. 

14. The teacher told John to put John's slate on John's desk. 

EXERCISE 4. 

Write five statements, each containing a pronoun. 



VERBS. I9 

LESSON VII. 

VERBS. 

When we play, talk, laugh, read, or sing, we act or 
do something. Words that tell what we do are called 
action-words. They are called action-words because 
they express action. 

Some words express simply being ; as, The boys are 
good ; The girl is happy. The words are and is do not 
express action, but being. 

Words that express action or being are called verbs. 

Definition. — A verb is a word that expresses 
action or being. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Name the verbs, and state whether they express 
action or being, 

i. Harold runs. 9. The farmer ploughs. 

2. Willie laughs. 10. Bees sting. 

3. The horse walks. 11. Good boys study. 

4. Mary hastens. 12. Girls paint pictures. 

5. Jane knits. 13. The corn grows. 

6. Birds sing. 14. Robins are beautiful. 

7. The horse galloped. 15. Is Jane sick? 

8. Study your lesson. 16. Are oranges sweet? 



20 ADJECTIVES. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Fill the blanks -with suitable verbs, 

i. Charles in Boston. 12. The artist pictures. 

2. Sarah geography. 13. Oranges in Florida. 

3. Robins . 14. to school. 

4. Girls pictures. 15. Mary ill? 

5. Apples on trees. 16. The moon . 

6. Birds nests. 17. Life short. 

7. Dogs . 18. to me. 

8. Henry papers. 19. The rose red. 

9. Cats mice. 20. the cherries ripe? 

10. Horses oats. 21. Do larks ? 

11. Heat ice. 22. John his lesson. 

EXERCISE 3. 

Write five statements, three questions, and two com- 
mands. 



LESSON VIII. 

ADJECTIVES. 

Such words as the, this, those, ojic and five, are used 
to limit the nouns that follow them. 

Such words as good, wise, sivcet, hot, and their oppo- 
sites are used with nouns and pronouns, and express 
some quality or state of the objects named by the 
nouns. 



ADJECTIVES. 21 

Such words are called adjectives. 

Definition. — An adjective is a word used to limit 
or qualify nouns and pronouns. 

Definition. — An adjective used to limit a noun is 
called a limiting adjective. 

Definition. — An adjective used to qtialify a noun 
or a pronoun is called a qualifying- adjective. 

When both a limiting and a qualifying adjective are 
added to the same noun, the limiting adjective usually 
stands first ; as, a good girl, this beautiful flower, an 
old man, that fragrant rose. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Mention the limiting words ; the qualifying words. 

i This apple. 4. cTW^boys. 7. Z/tohat. 

2. One pear. 5. Wise men. 8. Cold water. 

3. The books. 6. Sweet oranges. 9. Five pencils. 

EXERCISE 2. 
Fill the blanks with suitable adjectives. 

1 . Luther is a boy. 



2. 


Martin is 


- scholar. 


3- 


Sarah has 


— flower. 


4- 


Grant was 


— general. 


5- 


trees grow in 


forests. 


6. 


Martha has 


— apple. 



22 ADJECTIVES. 

7. men improve their time. 

8. children obey their parents. 

9. Joseph is man. 

10. Mr. Rice has horse. 

1 1 . Lucy wants orange. 

12. Mr. Parker has built house. 

13. books are companions. 

14. son maketh father. 

15. heart doeth good like a medicine. 

16. bird was thought to be . 

17. The view from our house is very . 

18. The days are growing very . 

19. man will be trusted. 

20. pictures adorn the room. 

EXERCISE 3. 

Name the adjectives, and the nouns they limit or qualify. 

1. Good boys obey their parents. 

2. Wise men improve precious time. 

3. Beautiful birds sing sweet songs. 

4. Hot water is an excellent medicine. 

5. The faithful dog accompanies his kind master. 

6. Tall and straight trees are often found in dense forests. 

7. There are many beautiful orange groves in Florida. 

8. Good books are a source of great happiness to many 

people. 

9. Beautiful flowers are not always fragrant. 



ARTICLES. 



23 



10. This is a stormy day. 

11. Eliza gave Jane a large sweet apple. 

12. A barking dog rarely bites. 

13. Large trees grow in warm climates. 

14. Melrose is a beautiful town near Boston. 

15. A black horse, a red horse, a gray horse, and a white horse 

draw the coach. 

16. Short words and long words are used in writing. 

17. On a clear night beautiful stars can be seen. 

18. Mr. Sawyer is building a fine new house. 

19. Some beautiful horses are useful animals. 

20. Tall, straight trees grow in Florida. 

EXERCISE 4. 

Write five statements, each containing an adjective. 



LESSON IX. 
ARTICLES. 

A, an, and the are sometimes called articles. 

A, e, i, 0, u are vowels, and all other letters are 
consonants. 

A is used before a consonant sound ; as, a book, a 
desk, a fire. 

An is used before a vowel sound ; as, an apple, an 
orange, an inkstand. 



H 



ADVERBS. 



The is used before words beginning with a vowel or a 

consonant. 

A or an is used before nouns meaning only one. 

The is used before words meaning one or more than 

one. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Fill the blanks -with appropriate articles and state the rea- 
son for choosing a, an, or the. 



• man. 

■ men. 

• apple. 
- pear. 

■ pears. 

■ garden. 

• gardens. 



house. 

■ houses, 
field. 

■ fields, 
window. 

■ arithmetic. 

• arithmetics. 



*5- 

16. 

i7- 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 



- desk. 

- desks. 
■ book. 

- books. 

- carpet. 

- inkstand. 

- inkstands. 



EXERCISE 2. 

Write ten statements, using the appropriate article in each. 



LESSON X. 



ADVERBS. 



Some words are joined to other words to modify 
their meaning ; as, Susan studies diligently. Diligently 
modifies the meaning of "studies," by telling how Susan 
studies. The boy is very generous. Very modifies the 



ADVERBS. 



25 



meaning of "generous," by telling how generous the boy 
is. Such words are called adverbs. 

Definition. — An adverb is a word used to modify 
the meaning of verbs and some other words. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Name the adverbs, and the -words -whose meaning they 
modify. 

1 . John walks hastily. 1 1 . Harold often came to visit 

2. Mary moves gracefully. me. 

3. Birds sing sweetly. 12. Good boys study dili- 

4. He started early. gently. 

5. The lightning flashes viv- 13. The train was moving 

idly. rapidly. 

6. The man w r alks slowly. 14. The smoke rises high. 

7. This apple is very sour. 15. He did not act wisely. 

8. This orange is very sweet. 16. She plays beautifully. 

9. The orator spoke very elo- 1 7. Slowly and sadly they laid 

quently. him down. 

10. Mary reads very carelessly. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Fill the blanks -with suitable adverbs. 

1. The cars move . 5. Gertrude sings . 

2. John writes . 6. The boy works . 

3. Nathan acted . 7. The trees are waving . 

4. Grace paints . 8. Birds fly . 



PREPOSITIONS. 

— . 12. Elephants walk . 

— . 13. Margaret reads . 

. 14. Susan sews and knits — 

EXERCISE 3. 

Write seven statements, each containing an adverb. 



26 

9. The man walks - 

10. George studies - 

1 1 . The child sleeps 



LESSON XI. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

Some words are placed before nouns and pronouns 
to connect them with some preceding word and to 
show the relation of the words so connected ; as, The 
man goes to Boston; William walks with John; The 
book lies on the desk. To shows the relation between 
"goes" and "Boston"; with shows the relation between 
"walks " and "John " ; on shows the relation between 
"lies" and "desk." Such words are called prepositions. 

Definition. — A preposition is a connective word 
showing the relation between the words it connects. 

SOME OF THE PREPOSITIONS. 



at 


before 


in 


round 


under 


above 


beneath 


into 


through 


up 


after 


beyond 


of 


till 


upon 


across 


by 


on 


to 


with 


against 


below 


over 


toward 


within 


along 


behind 


past 


unto 


without 



PREPOSITIONS. 2 ; 

EXERCISE 1. 

Fill the blanks -with suitable prepositions. 

1. The book lies me the desk. 

2. I saw the man noon his house. 

3. Thomas went his house his store. 

4. Mr. West rode Boston Salem his carriage. 

5. He boards Mr. Benton's Boston. 

6. The best oranges grow Florida. 

7. They walked their room. 

8. The birds flew tree tree. 

9. Large vessels sail the ocean. 

10. Apples grow trees the orchard. 

1 1 . Look the bright side your condition. 

12. A tree is known its fruit. 

13. A bird — — the hand is worth two the bush. 

14. Commit thy way the Lord ; trust also Him. 

15. There is a day sunny rest every dark and 

troubled night. 

16. The regiment is now winter quarters. 

17. Joseph and Mary took their books school them. 

18. John's slate was broken many pieces. 

19. The train was moving a rapid rate. 

20. Tyrants are despised all who know them. 



2 8 PREPOSITIONS. 



EXERCISE 2. 



Name the prepositions and the words they show the 
relation between. 

i. The dog leaped over the wall. 

2. A man rushed into the house. 

3. Grapes grow in the garden. 

4. John went from Albany to Boston. 

5. Boys learn by careful study. 

6. Do not stop to play on your way to school. 

7. They rode from Lawrence to Boston. 

8. Children play with toys. 

9. Girls go to school in summer. 

10. A man walked through the house. 

11. Boys study their lessons in school. 

12. Apples fall from the trees to the ground. 

13. Be at your post in time. 

14. Mary walked in the garden. 

15. Come to me to-morrow. 

16. Boys should not slide on thin ice. 

17. Boys skate in winter on the pond. 

18. Apples grow on trees, and fall to the ground when 

ripe. 

19. Children play on the lawn. 

20. Birds fly to the trees and sing in the branches. 

EXERCISE 3. 

Write five statements, each containing a preposition. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



29 



LESSON XII. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

Words like and, but, for, if, are used to connect 
words and sentences ; as, Albert and Henry go to 
school ; Charles studies, but John is very idle ; I cannot 
go, for business detains me. And connects "Albert" 
and "Henry"; but connects "Charles studies" and 
"John is very idle" ; for connects " I cannot go " and 
"business detains me." Such words are called con- 
junctions. 

Definition. — A conjunction is a word used to 
connect words and sentences. 

SOME OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. 



although 


but 


neither 


that 


unless 


and 


either 


nor 


then 


wherefore 


as 


for 


or 


therefore 


whether 


because 


if 


since 


though 


yet 


both 


lest 


than 







EXERCISE 1. 

Fill the blanks -with suitable conjunctions. 

1. Amy Dora came yesterday. 

2. Henry writes studies arithmetic. 

3. Either Edwin Thomas will come. 



30 CONJUNCTIONS. 

4. He will come he is needy. 

5. They will not learn they study. 

6. Neither Mary Jane will come. 

7. Joseph writes ciphers. 

8. John goes to school Eliza plays. 

9. Jane will go she will return. 

10. Edgar Maud study geography. 

1 1 . Grace Gertrude will go. 

12. he slay me will I trust in him. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Name the conjunctions and the words they connect. 

1. Boys and girls recite in the same class. 

2. Edwin studies arithmetic and grammar. 

3. Joseph or William will go to town. 

4. Mary likes to study, but Sarah likes to play. 

5. They will not learn unless they study. 

6. Either Bertha or Mary will write. 

7. The books and papers lie on the desk. 

8. Trust in the Lord, and do good. 

9. He will work if he can. 

10. The days are warm, but the nights are cool. 

11. Birds fly, but fishes swim. 

12. I need exercise, for I am chilly. 

13. Time and tide wait for no man. 

14. Harold and John read and write. 

15. The girls play and sing. 



INTERJECTIONS. 3 1 

16. Depart from evil, and do good. 

17. Kind words cost nothing, but are worth much. 

18. Man proposes, but God disposes. 

19. Be slow to promise and quick to perform. 

20. Worth makes the man, and want of it the fellow. 

2 1 . This apple is sweet, but that one is sour. 

22. A conjunction is a word used to connect words and sen- 

tences. 

EXERCISE 3. 
Write five statements, each containing a conjunction. 



LESSON XIII. 
INTERJECTIONS. 

Such words as O ! Ah ! Hush ! Hurrah ! express sur- 
prise or emotion ; as, Ah ! John, I am sorry. Oh, come 
quickly ! Such words are called interjections. 

Definition. — An interjection is a word used to 
express surprise or emotion. 

SOME OF THE INTERJECTIONS. 

ah ha hist lo 

aha hail ho O 

alack halloo hum oh 

alas hark hush pshaw 



32 INTERJECTIONS. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Name the interjections. 

i. Alas ! I have ruined my boy. 

2. Ah ! how unfortunate he is. 

3. that I had wings like a dove ! 

4. " Hush ! " said the mother to her child. 

5. " Oh ! " exclaimed the boy when he was struck. 

6. Oh, how the wind blows ! 

7. Lo ! I am here. 

8. Hail ! hail to the great chief ! 

EXERCISE 2. 

Fill the blanks with suitable interjections. 

1. ! I am sorry. 5. , how glad I am ! 

2. ! has he come? 6. ! when did he die? 

3. It is he, but , how 7. ! such dark eyes. 

changed ! 8. , recall the time when 

4. ! who shall lead us we were children ! 

thither? 

EXERCISE 3. 

Write five exclamations, using an interjection with each. 



SUMMARY. 33 

LESSON XIV. 

SUMMARY. 

All the words of the English language are divided 
into eight classes called parts of speech. They are 
called nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, 
prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. 

1. A noun is a name. 

2. A proper noun is a special name for one of a class. 

3. A common noun is a general name for any one 
or all of a class. 

4. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 

5. A verb is a word that expresses action or being. 

6. An adjective is a word used to limit or qualify 
nouns and pronouns. 

7. An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning 
of verbs and some other words. 

8. A preposition is a connective word showing the 
relation between the words it connects. 

9. A conjunction is a word used to connect words 
and sentences. 

10. An interjection is a word used to express sur- 
prise or emotion. 



34 GENDER OE NOUNS. 

LESSON XV. 

MASCULINE, FEMININE, AND NEUTER NOUNS. 

A masculine noun is the name of a male ; as, Charles, 
boy. 

A feminine noun is the name of a female ; as, Mary, 
girl. 

A neuter noun is the name of neither a male nor a 
female ; as, chair, stove, table. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Tell the masculine, feminine, and neuter nouns, 
i. James found a watch. 6. John has written a letter. 

2. Sarah lost her pencil. 7. Dora has found her book. 

3. Mary lost her thimble. 8. Mr. Bond is in town. 

4. The lamp is on the table. 9. The iron is hot. 

5. The schoolmaster is coming. 10. The days are long. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Fill the blanks -with nouns of the right gender. 

1. Edgar is a good . 6. The on which he came. 

2. Mary and are sisters. 7. The man planted in 

3. This is good to eat. his field. 

4. Harold and are broth- S. Apples grow on . 

ers. 9. is an active boy. 

5. This is sweet. 10. Eva is a good . 



NUMBER OF NOUNS. 35 

EXERCISE 3. 

Write five statements, and tell the kind of noun or nouns 
used in each. 

Abbreviations. — N noun; mas. masculine; fern, feminine; 
neut. neuter. 



LESSON XVI. 



NUMBER OF NOUNS. 



Most nouns have two forms to denote number — the 
singular and the plural. 

The singular number denotes one. 

The plural number denotes more than one. 

The plural of nouns is regularly formed : 

1. By adding s to the singular when its last letter 
can unite in sound with s ; as boy, boyj ; bird, birdj. 

2. By adding es to the singular when its last letter 
cannot unite in sound with s ; as, box, \>oxes ; church, 
church^. 

The following plurals are irregular : man, men ; 
woman, women ; child, children ; ox, oxen ; foot, feet ; 
tooth, teeth ; mouse, mice. 

Proper nouns have no plural except when they repre- 
sent groups, or families ; as, The Smiths, The Stuarts^ 



36 GENDER OF PRONOUNS. 

EXERCISE. 

Form the plural of the following nouns : — 

Book, desk, door, pen, pencil, slate, teacher, pupil, 
girl, chair, table, picture, star, window. 

Arch, fox, dish, fish, inch, kiss, lash, gash, sash, bush, 
peach, cargo, potato, tomato, bench, trench, coach. 
Abbreviations. — Sing, singular; plu. plural. 



LESSON XVII. 

MASCULINE, FEMININE, AND NEUTER PRONOUNS. 

The personal pronouns, /, you, ke, she, it, simply 
stand in place of the nouns they represent. 

He, his, him, are masculine forms of the pronoun. 

She, hers, her, are feminine forms of the pronoun. 

// and its, are neuter forms of the pronoun. 

We cannot tell whether / and you are masculine or 
feminine till we see them associated with other words. 
I am a good boy. You are a good girl. " Boy " shows 
that "I" in this case is masculine. " Girl " shows that 
"you " in this case is feminine. 

The gender of we, they, their, and them is to be 
determined by their connection with other words. 



GENDER OF PRONOUNS. 37 

EXERCISE 1. 

Tell the masculine, feminine, and neuter pronouns. 

1. He has a new book. 6. My father found me. 

2. I saw her last week. 7. He has lost his cane. 

3. She has a new hat. 8. It is a beautiful tree. 

4. His mother loves him. 9. You are a brave boy. 

5. You are brothers. 10. They are sisters. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Fill the blanks with suitable pronouns. 

1 . The apple has lost flavor. 

2. Mark saw yesterday. 

3. Jane has lost watch. 

4. The boy visited uncle. 

5. The girls are with aunt. 

6. The orange lost sweetness. 

7. The boys found ball. 

$. She rides in carriage. 

9. He has sold farm. 

10. She is visiting cousin. 

EXERCISE 3. 

Write five statements, using a masculine, feminine, or neu- 
ter pronoun in each. 

Abbreviation. — Pron. pronoun. 



38 NUMBER OF PRONOUXS. 

LESSON XVIII. 

NUMBER OF PRONOUNS. 

The plural of " I " is "we." 

The plural of "you" is "you." 

The plural of "he," "she," and "it," is "they." 

The plural of "me" is "us." 

The plural of "you " is "you." 

The plural of "him," "her," and "it," is "them." 

EXERCISE 1. 

Fill the blanks with suitable pronouns. 

i. read. 3. reads. 5. work. 7. grows. 

2. write. 4. runs. 6. talk. 8. happens. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Fill the blanks -with suitable pronouns. 

1. He saw . 4. They stopped . 

2. They warned . 5. Sarah called . 

3. I respect . 6. I found . 

The plural of " my " is " our " ; of " your " is " your " ; 
of "his," "its," and "her," is "their." 

These words denote ownership ; as, my book ; our 
pencils ; your watch ; his slate ; her desk ; their house. 

Capitals. — The pronoun " I " must always be a cap- 
ital letter. 



USE OF THE VERB. 39 

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

The compound personal pronouns are formed by 
adding to the simple pronoun, self for the singular, 
and selves for the plural ; as, myself, him^^, her^^, 
itself; ourselves, themselves. 



LESSON XIX. 

USE OF THE VERB. 

The verb is a word that expresses action or being. 
The earth is round. Is John sick ? Come to me. 

Verbs, according to their use, are either transitive or 
intransitive. 

A transitive verb has, or may have, an object. 

John plants corn. Heat melts ice. 

" Plants "is a transitive verb ; its object is "corn." 
" Melts " is transitive ; its object is "ice." 

An intransitive verb has no object. 

The horse zualks. The bird flies. Trees grow. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Supply suitable verbs. 



I. 


Susan books. 


6. 


Carpenters houses. 


2. 


George apples. 


7- 


Horses oats. 


3- 


Mary letters. 


8. 


The tree apples. 


4- 


The farmer potatoes. 


9- 


Birds nests. 


5- 


Nathan geography. 


10. 


The man his oxen. 



4 USE OF THE VERB. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Write five statements, each containing a transitive verb. 

EXERCISE 3. 

Supply suitable intransitive verbs. 

i. The sun . 6. Fishes . 

2. Horses . 7. The wind . 

3. Birds . 8. The weary man . 

4. Dogs . 9. The lion . 

5. The grass . 10. Snow . 

EXERCISE 4. 

Write five statements, each containing an intransitive 
verb. 

VERBS TAKING PREDICATE NOUNS OR ADJECTIVES. 

Some intransitive verbs are followed by a noun or an 
adjective, called the predicate noun or adjective. Wil- 
liam is a boy. Dora is happy. 

EXERCISE 5. 

Supply suitable predicate nouns or adjectives. 

1. The day is . 6. The grass looks . 

2. Moses is a good . 7. Mr. Mason is a good . 

3. Martha looks . 8. The apple is . 

4. Sarah appears . 9. May is a happy . 

5. The tree is . 10. These are good . 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 4I 

EXERCISE 6. 

Write five statements, each containing a predicate noun or 
adjective. 

Abbreviations. — K verb ; tr, transitive ; intr. intransitive. 



LESSON XX. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

Comparison is a modification of the adjective to 
express quality or quantity in different degrees. 

Hard, harder, hardest. Wise, wiser, wisest. 

There are three degrees of comparison : the positive, 
the comparative, and the superlative. 

The positive is the simplest form of the adjective. 

The comparative of monosyllables is regularly formed 
from the positive by adding r or er. 

Short, shorter. 

The superlative of monosyllables is regularly formed 
from the positive by adding st or est. 

Short, shorter, shorted. 

Some dissyllables are compared like monosyllables ; 
as, able, abler, ablest. Happy, happier, happier*. 

Some adjectives are compared by prefixing more and 
most, or less and least ; as, faithful, more faithful, most 
faithful. Difficult, less difficult, least difficult. 



42 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Select the adjectives, tell the degree of each, and what 
noun each modifies. 

i. John's knife is cheap. 7. Mr. B. is the wisest man in 

2. Dora's pencil is cheaper. town. 

3. Charles is a tall boy. 8. Sweet oranges grow in Flor- 

4. James is a taller boy. ida. 

5. Harold is the tallest boy in 9. That problem is more diffi- 

school. cult. 

6. The day is warm. 10. This problem is less difficult. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Fill the blanks with suitable adjectives. 

1. This apple is . 

2. That apple is . 

3. Cora's knife is . 

4. Albert's knife is . 

5. Frank's knife is the of all. 

6. Mr. D. is the man in town. 

7. That is the horse in town. 

8. Emma is the girl in school. 

9. This problem is . 

10. That problem is . 

EXERCISE 3. 

Write ten sentences, using in each an adjective of the 
comparative or superlative degree. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 



43 





IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 






(COMMIT.) 






Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Good 


Better 




Best 


Bad 


Worse 




Worst 


111 


Worse 




Worst 


Little 


Less 




Least 


Much 


More 




Most 


Many 


More 




Most 


Late 


Later 




Latest or last 


Old 


Older 




Oldest 


Near 


Nearer 




Nearest or next 


Nigh 


Nearer 




Nearest or next 




EXERCISE 1. 







Select the adjectives, tell the degree of each, and what 
noun each modifies. 

i. Joseph is a good boy. 

2. Edgar is a better boy. 

3. George is the best boy in school. 

4. Mary has many toys. 

5. Alice has more toys. 

6. Most children enjoy praise. 

7. She derived little benefit from her journey. 

8. Mr. M. has much money. 

9. Bad boys should improve. 

10. Old people should be respected. 



44 CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Write five sentences, each containing an adjective cf irregu- 
lar comparison in the comparative or superlative degree. 

An adjective that cannot be compared is called an 
incomparable adjective. 

A proper adjective is one derived from a proper 
noun. An American citizen. An English orator. A 
German philosopher. An Italian artist. The French 
language. A Greek scholar. A Russian soldier. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Write five sentences, each containing a qualifying adjec- 
tive, and compare. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Write seven statements, each containing a proper adjective. 



LESSON XXI. 

CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 

There are adverbs of : — 

i . Time ; as, now, often, seldom, soon, formerly. 

2. Place ; as, liere, there, where, above, within. 

3. Degree; as, almost, nearly, more, less, very. 

4. Manner; as, rapidly, so, thus, wisely, falsely. 

5. Affirmation; as, certainly, surely, truly. 

6. Negation ; as, not, nowhere, nowise. 



COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 



EXERCISE 1. 



45 



Select the adverbs, tell their class and what verbs they 
modify. 

i. He seldom visits me. 4. Sarah is very happy. 

2. Mary will come soon. 5. The river flows rapidly. 

3. It is there. 6. He talks wisely. 

7. Dora was here yesterday. 

8. Helen will surely come. 

9. The apple is almost ripe. 

10. They will not remain there. 

11. I could find him nowhere. 

12. Mr. Bond formerly lived in Boston. 

Note. — Do not use two negative words in the same statement ; 
as, I could not find him nowhere. Corrected : I could find him 
nowhere ; or, I could not find him anywhere. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Write six statements, selecting successively an adverb 
from each of the classes mentioned. 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

Some adverbs are regularly compared by adding to 
the positive er and est. 

Soon, sooner, soonest. Late, later, latest. Fast, 
faster, fastest. 

Others are compared by prefixing to the positive 
more and most or less and least. 



4 6 RESPONSIVKS. 

Wisely, more wisely, most wisely. Ouietly, less qui- 
etly, least quietly. 

Some adverbs are irregularly compared. 
Much, more, most ; well, better, best. 

EXERCISE 3. 

Select the adverbs, tell the degree, and what verb, adjec- 
tive, or adverb each modifies. 

i. This boy walks faster. 6. I admire this more. 

2. This apple is much better. 7. John enjoys that most. 

3. That horse runs fastest. 8. This works better. 

4. John will come later. 9. That works best. 

5. That steamer moves less 10. They move more quietly. 

rapidly. 

EXERCISE 4. 

Write five statements, each containing an adverb of the 
comparative or superlative degree. 

RESPONSIVES. 

"Yes" and "No" are simply rcsponsives. They are 
condensed sentences. 

Are you happy ? Yes = I am happy. 

Are you prosperous ? No = I am not prosperous. 

Note. — These words are sometimes called adverbs, but they 

modify neither a verb nor any other word. 






USE OF THE PREPOSITION. 47 

LESSON XXII. 

USE OF THE PREPOSITION. 

The preposition, as we have learned, is a connective 
word used to show the relation between the words it 
connects. 

EXPLANATION. 

1. Charles went to Concord. 3. He is a man 0/ wisdom. 

2. He returned /;w/z Dover. 4. Helen plays with her sister. 

5. He is prudent in speech. 

6. He is anxious about his work. 

1. "To" shows the relation of " Concord " to "went." 

2. "From" shows the relation of "Dover" to "re- 
turned." 

3. "In" shows the relation of "speech" to "pru- 
dent." 

4. "Of" shows the relation of "wisdom " to "man." 

5. " With " shows the relation of "sister " to " plays." 

6. "About" shows the relation of "work" to "anx- 
ious." 

The noun or pronoun following a preposition is called 
its object. 

In the sentence, " Helen plays with her sister," 
"sister" is the object of "with." 



4 3 (/SB OB CONJUNCTIONS. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Select the prepositions, tell their objects, and the words 
to which the prepositions show the relations of their 
objects. 

i. Charles fell from a building. 6. I went into the house. 

2. Joseph fell on the ice. 7. He is a man of truth. 

3. Emma goes to school. 8. Edgar was sitting in the 

4. The horse leaped over the parlor. 

wall. 9. He was sitting at his desk. 

5. The dog barked at a boy. 10. I went with him. 

11. I saw apples on the trees. 

12. He came from Dover to Boston. 

13. A boy threw a snow-ball at the house. 

14. My brothers and sisters are at home. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Write six sentences, each containing one or more prepo- 
sitions. 



LESSON XXIII. 

USE OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

A conjunction is a word used to connect words and 
sentences. There are co-ordinate and subordinate con- 
junctions. Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words or 
sentences of equal rank, like the following: — 



USE OF CONJUNCTIONS. 49 

1 . John and James are brothers. 

2. George plays and Dora sings. 

3. Cora and Delia read and write. 

4. Sarah will go, but Mary will not. 

5. My father will go or send his servant. 

EXPLANATION. 

1. "And" connects "John" and "James." 

2. "And" connects "George plays" and "Dora 
sings." 

3. "And" connects "Cora" and "Delia"; also, 
" read " and " write." 

4. "But" connects the two sentences, " Sarah, etc." 
and "Mary, etc." 

5. "Or" connects the verbs "will go" and "send." 

EXERCISE 1. 

Select the conjunctions, and tell what they connect. 

1. Boys and girls sing. 

2. Girls sing and play. 

3. Edwin will go, but Eva will not. 

4. Mabel or Ruth will come. 

5. The man is honest and discreet. 

6. The days are long and sultry. 

7. The trees are tall and straight. 

8. Iron and copper are metals. 

9. Horses and oxen are useful. 



5 o CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 

10. The weather is hot and dry. 

ii. Most men would be rich, if they could. 

12. The days are short, but very cold. 

13. The boys are noisy, but the girls are quiet. 

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 

There are correlative conjunctions used in pairs ; as, 

Either or. Either Mark or Joseph will go to town. 

Neither nor. I neither saw him nor heard him. 

Both and. Both men and women went to hear. 

Subordinate conjunctions are used to connect subordi- 
nate with principal statements ; as, I study that I may 
learn. I exercise that I may have good health. I wish 
that I could go. 

EXERCISE 2 

Write five statements containing conjunctions, and tell 
what the conjunctions connect. 



LESSON XXIV. 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 
The eiidijigs eive and ieve. 

Rule 1. — In such words as receive, perceive, ei is 
used after c; as, deceive, receipt; but ie is used after 
other letters ; as, believe, relieve, retrieve. 






RULES FOR SPELLING. 



Final e, silent. 



51 



Rule 2. — Silent e at the end of a word is dropped 
before an additional syllable beginning with a vowel ; 
as, love, lov-ing ; have, hav-ing. 

Exception. — Ce and ge, on taking an additional 
syllable beginning with a or 0, do not drop the e ; as, 
service, serviceable ; change, changeable ; courage, cour- 
ageous. 

Final y after a consonant. 

Rule 3. — Y at the end of a word, after a consonant, 
is changed into i before an additional syllable ; as, 
mercy, merciful ; duty, dutiful. 

Final y after a vowel. 

Rule 4. — Y at the end of a word, after a vowel, is 
not changed before an additional syllable ; as, play, 
player ; destroy, destroyer. 

Rule 5. — Monosyllables, and words accented on the 
last syllable, ending with a single consonant, preceded 
by a single vowel, double their final consonant before an 
additional syllable that begins with a vowel ; as, rob, 
robber; admit, admitted. 



52 



CAPITAL LETTERS. 



EXERCISE 1. 

Correct the errors in spelling, and give reasons, 

i. I recieved your letter. 12. The bird is beautyfiil. 

2. He decieved me. 13. Manlyness is desireable. 

3. His conciet is apparent. 14. It is an allaier of pain. 

4. They beleived him. 15. He is a conveier. 

5. He was releived. 16. Charles was betraied. 

6. I percieved it. 17. It was sold to the highest 

7. John saw him comeing. bider. 

8. She is rideing home. 18. Edwin was a tiner. 

9. He was blameing me. 19. He was made sader. 

10. It is damagable. 20. Charles noded assent. 

11. The horse is servicable. 21. I commited the lesson. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Write ten statements, — two under each rule, and two 
under the exception, — each containing some word there 
found. 



LESSON XXV. 

CAPITAL LETTERS. 
Begin with a capital letter : — 

1 . The special names of persons ; as, George, Mary, 

2. The special names of places ; is, Boston, Chicago. 

3. The special names of months ; as, January \ March, 

4. The special names of days \ as, Monday, Thursday. 



CAPITAL LETTERS. 53 

Begin with a small letter : — 

The names of the seasons ; as, spring, autumn, winter. 

Note. — The general names — year, season, month, day — as 
well as all other general names, should begin with a small letter, 
except at the beginning of a sentence. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Correct errors and give reasons. 

1. Joseph lives in lynn. 6. June has thirty Days. 

2. mary has gone to salem. 7. I saw him last monday. 

3. december is a cold Month. 8. This is a fruitful Year. 

4. The Days in July are warm. 9. We saw martha yesterday. 

5. Amy is visiting in concord. 10. Dr. day is in town. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Write ten statements, using one or more proper nouns in 
each, and making a proper use of capitals. 

When a proper noun consists of two or more words, 
each word should begin with a capital letter. 

George Washington. Johti Quincy Adams. 

Proper adjectives derived from pi'oper names should 
begin with a capital. 

An American citizen. Many Mexican troops. 

An English Lord. A French steamer. 

The monument was made of Italian marble. 
The man was lost in a Canadian wilderness. 



54 CAPITALS. 

LESSON XXVI. 

CAPITALS— Continued. 

Begin with a capital letter : — 

i. The first word of every complete sentence; as, Life is 
short. 

2. All names of the Deity; as, God, Lord, Jesus Christ. 

3. Titles of respect and honor, abbreviated and the complete 
word; as, Mr., Master or Mister ; Dr., Doctor ; Rev., Reverend. 

4. The important words in the subject of a composition. 

5. The pronoun "I" and the interjection "O" should 
always be capitals. 

6. Each word in the name of a state ; as, New York. 

7. The first word in every line of poetry. 

" Never schoolboy in his quest 
After hazel-nut or nest, 
Through the forest in and out 
Wandered loitering thus about." 

EXERCISE 1. 

Correct errors, and give reasons. 

1. The lord is good. 5. rev. mr. Cate is present. 

2. christ is our saviour. 6. o, believe it not. 

3. mr. Bond is absent. 7. i met him in new hampshire. 

4. dr. Mitchell was called. 8. The aim of life. 

9. " the good are better made by ill 
as odors crushed are sweeter still." 



PUNCTUATION. 



EXERCISE 2. 



55 



Write five statements, using in each, one of the abbrevi- 
ated titles, some name of the Deity, or the pronoun " I." 

ABBREVIATIONS. 
Mr. Master or Mister. Mrs. Mistress. 

Dr. Doctor. A.B. Bachelor of Arts. 

Rev. Reverend. A.M. Master of Arts. 

Prof. Professor. D.D. Doctor of Divinity. 

LL.D. Doctor of Laws. 



LESSON XXVII. 
PUNCTUATION. 

Place the period ( . ) : — 

i . After a complete declarative sentence ; as, Life is short. 

2. After an imperative sentence ; as, Boys, go home. 

3. After all abbreviated words ; as, D. for David ; Dr. for 
Doctor ; Wm. for William. 

4. After the date of a letter; as, Boston, Mass., Sept. 10, 
1886. 

5. After the name, or names, before the complimentary 
address ; as, 

Messrs. Manly & Robinson, 

New York. 
Gentlemen : — 



5 6 PUNCTUATION. 

6. After your signature or name at the end of a letter ; as. 

Yours very truly, 

John James. 

7. At the end of the envelope address ; as, 

Rev. J. A. Lowell 
Danville 

N. H. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Punctuate the following: — 

1. Dr Lord is in town 7. Mr Wm Chase Newfield Me 

2. Mr Dame is at home 8. Yours sincerely 

3. John come back Ella Garland 

4. Jane study your lesson 9. Miss Martha A Temple 

5. The apples are ripe Littleton 

6. Dover N H Sept 10 1886 N H 

EXERCISE 2. 

Write and punctuate five declarative and five imperative 
sentences. 



LESSON XXVIII. 

PUNCTUATION— Continued. 

Place the interrogation point ( ? ) after a ques- 
tion ; as, Are the apples good? Is the book inter- 
esting ? 



PUNCTUATION. 



57 



Place the exclamation point (!) after an exclama- 
tion, often immediately after an exclamatory word ; as, 
" Come hither ! come hither ! my little daughter." Fire ! 
fire ! ! 

The comma (,) is used : — 

i. To separate the words of a series used in the same way; 
as, John, James, Mary, and Susan go to school. 

2. To separate pairs of words used in the same way ; as, 
Fathers and mothers, brothers and sisters unite in the same 
enterprise. 

3. To set off explanatory words ; as, Miss Long, the teacher, 
has returned. Mr. Dow, the merchant, is in town. 

4. Often to set off independent nouns ; as, Emma, come to 
the desk. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Punctuate the following: — 

1. Is Charles sick 3. How it rains 

2. Has the Dr. come 4. How dark it is 

5. Emma May and Dora are here 

6. I saw birds lambs and trees 

7. Eva and Ruth Moses and Charles recite their 

lessons 

8. Harold the student is at home 

9. Miss Day the teacher is sick 
10. Henry return your book 



58 



PUNCTUATION. 



EXERCISE 2. 



Write and punctuate two questions ; two exclamations ; 
two containing a series of words : two containing ex- 
planatory words ; two containing independent words. 



LESSON XXIX. 

[This lesson may be omitted at the discretion of the teacher.] 

The semicolon (;) is used to mark the divisions of a sentence 
next greater than those requiring the comma. It is often used to 
separate several short connected sentences, written one after an- 
other ; as, There is food for the hungry ; there is water for the 
thirsty ; there is rest for the weary. 

The colon ( : ) is used to mark the divisions of a sentence next 
greater than those requiring a semicolon. It is generally used be- 
fore a direct quotation ; as, God said : " Let there be light."' 

The dash ( — ) is sometimes used with the colon in long quotations. 
Many letter writers use the colon either with or without the dash 
after the complimentary address ; as, Dear Sir : Honored Sir : — 

The hyphen (-) is used to separate the parts of a compound 
word, and at the end of a line after a complete syllable, when the 
remainder of the word is written at the beginning of the next line : 
as, House-top. communi- 

cation. 

The caret ( A ) is used to denote that something has been acci- 
dentally omitted : as. The days A long. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Punctuate the following : — 

1. The days are warm the nights are cold the wind is piercing 

2. The speaker said Mr President I rise to explain 

3. The teacher said Let the room be quiet that all may derive benefit 
from the recitation 

4. John has lost his book 



SENTENCES. 59 

LESSON XXX. 

THE SENTENCE. — SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. -KINDS 
OF SENTENCES. 

Definition. — A sentence is a thought expressed in 
words; as, Mary sings, birds fly, fishes swim, trees grow. 

The essential parts of a sentence are the subject 
and the predicate. 

The subject names the person or thing of which 
something is said or asserted. 

The predicate tells what is said or asserted of the 
subject. 

In the sentence, Mary sings, the word Mary is the 
subject, because it names the person who sings. The 
word sings is the predicate, because it tells what Mary 
does. 

There are four kinds of sentences, — declarative, 
interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory. 

Definition. — A declarative sentence expresses an 
assertion or a declaration ; as, Robert is a good boy ; 
he is a wise man. 

Definition. — An interrogative sentence expresses 
an inquiry, or asks a question ; as, Does it rain ? Is the 
man sick ? 

Definition. — An imperative sentence expresses a 
command or an entreaty ; as, Walter, come to me ; Go 



60 SENTENCES. 

home, boys ; Stop, sir ; Create in me a clean heart, O 
God! 

Definition. — An exclamatory sentence expresses 
surprise or emotion; as, How swiftly that bird flies! 
How green the grass looks ! 

Note. — The complete subject is the subject noun with all its 
modifiers ; the complete predicate is the verb with all its modifiers ; 
as, Some girls study faithfully. Some girls is the complete subject ; 
study faithfully is the complete predicate. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Write three sentences of each kind. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Mention the complete subject and complete predicate ; 
then the subject noun and predicate verb. 

i. Some birds sing sweetly. 

2. Honest men work faithfully. 

3. Some children play quietly. 

4. Wisdom is the principal thing. 

5 . Who took the books from the desk ? 

6. Do Susan and Mary study arithmetic? 

7. A prudent man acts wisely. 

8. How beautiful those flowers are ! 

EXERCISE 3. 

Fill the blanks with subjects. 

1. walk. 3. grow. 

2. sing. 4. study. 



PREDICATE NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 6 1 

5. run. 8. weep bitterly. 

6. run fast. 9. fly swiftly. 

7. move rapidly. 10. read well. 

EXERCISE 4 

Fill the blanks -with predicates. 

1. Birds . 7. The wind . 

2. Foxes . 8. The girls . 

3. Dogs . 9. Boys . 

4. Trees . 10. The light . 

5. Children . 11. The grass . 

6. The stars . 12. The orator . 

EXERCISE 5. 

Choose your own subjects, and write live simple declara- 
tive sentences, five simple interrogative sentences, five 
simple imperative sentences, five simple exclamatory 
sentences. 



LESSON XXXI. 
PREDICATE NOUNS AND PREDICATE ADJECTIVES. 

A noun or an adjective used with a verb to complete 
the predicate is called a predicate noun or adjective ; 
as, Dora is a good girl ; Mary is happy. 

In the first sentence girl is a predicate noun modified 
by a and good. In the second sentence happy is a pred- 



62 PREDICATE NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 

icatc adjective. In these sentences £7>/ and happy refer 
to the subjects Dora and Mary. 

EXERCISE 1. 

In each sentence mention the subject noun and the 
predicate noun or adjective. 

i. Edgar is a good boy. 6. The sky is blue. 

2. The days are long. 7. John and James are 

3. The nights are short. brothers. 

4. Harold is a fine scholar. 8. Sarah looks pale. 

5. He became a good man. 9. The boys are glad. 

10. Alice and Hattie are friends. 

11. Gertrude looks cold. 

12. The girls are sisters. 

13. John is Jane's uncle. 

14. The day was stormy. 

In all these sentences the predicate noun or adjective 
refers to the subject > and is joined to it by the verb. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Write a sentence (containing a predicate noun or adjec- 
tive) about each of the following subjects : — 



I. 


Joseph. 


5- 


Birds. 


9- 


Flowers. 


T 3- 


Jane. 


2. 


Moses. 


6. 


Emma. 


10. 


The girl. 


14. 


Fishes. 


3- 


The house. 


7- 


The boy. 


11. 


The snow. 


T 5- 


The ele- 


4- 


Mary. 


8. 


The stars. 


12. 


The apples. 




phant. 



J 



THE OBJECT OF THE VERB. 



63 



LESSON XXXII. 

THE OBJECT OF THE VERB. 

In the sentence John loves , the statement is 

incomplete ; an additional word is needed to complete 
the sense ; as, John loves Joseph. We call the noun 
Joseph the object of the verb loves. 



EXERCISE 1. 

In each .of the following sentences, name the subject, 
the object, and the verb of which it is the object : — 



1. Charles studies history. 

2. Wise men improve time. 

3. Ralph learns his lessons. 

4. Gertrude studies grammar. 

5. Some boys sell papers. 

6. Mary found a pencil. 

7. Mr. Weld teaches school. 

8. Horses eat oats. 

9. The tailor makes clothes. 

10. Men sometimes chop wood. 

11. Hatters make hats. 

12. Birds build nests. 

13. Carpenters build houses. 



14. Temperance promotes 

health. 

15. Who recited the best 

lesson ? 

16. James wrote a letter. 

17. Gardeners raise vegeta- 

bles. 

18. Some farmers sow wheat. 

19. Oxen draw loads. 

20. Amy writes books. 

21. The busy bee gathers 

honey. 
2 2 . Some girls paint pictures. 



In the first sentence, Charles is the subject, because 
it names the person spoken of. History is the object, 



6 4 



THE OBJECT OE THE VERB. 



because it names what is affected by the action ex- 
pressed by the verb, or what Charles studies. Studies 
is the verb, because it tells what John does. 

The natural order of words in sentences is: — 

i. The subject, with or without modifiers. 

2. The verb, with or without modifiers. 

3. The object, with or without modifiers. 



EXERCISE 2. 

Fill the blanks with suitable objects, or complete the 
sentences. 



1. Boys toss . 

2. Girls read . 

3. Cats catch . 

4. Tailors repair . 

5. Men drive . 

6. Good books interest . 

7. The carpenter drives . 



8. Mr. Nash teaches 

9. Nathan studies . 

10. Some boys sell . 

1 1 . The weaver weaves — 

12. The shoemaker makes - 

13. Carpenters build . 

14. The jeweller sells 



EXERCISE 3. 

Write a sentence about each of the following subjects, 
having an object : — 



I. 


Boys. 


5- 


Oxen. 


9. Teachers. 


J 3- 


Cats. 


2. 


Girls. 


6. 


Horses. 


10. Tailors. 


14. 


Fire. 


3- 


Birds. 


7- 


Carpenters. 


11. Ministers. 


15- 


Water. 


4- 


Bees. 


8. 


Parents. 


12. Farmers. 


16. 


Merchants. 



PHRASES USED AS MODIFIERS. 65 

LESSON XXXIII. 

PHRASES USED AS MODIFIERS. 

Sometimes two or more words are used together as 
one word ; as, a man of wisdom, a man of discretion, 
a man of purity. These expressions mean the same 
as a wise man, a discreet man, a pure man. 

Definition. — A phrase is a combination of two 
or more words used in the sense of one word. 

A phrase beginning with a preposition is called a 
prepositional phrase. 

A phrase joined to a noun is an adjective modifier ; 
of wisdom, joined to tnati, is an adjective modifier. 

A phrase joined to a verb is an adverbial modifier; 
as, The boy acted with wisdom means the boy acted 
wisely ; The girl acted with discretion means the girl 
acted discreetly. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Change the following phrases into adjectives or adverbs: — 

1. George is a boy of truth. 

2. John is a boy of diligence. 

3. Mr. Bond is a man of wisdom. 

4. It is a flower of sweetness. 

5. The boys move with ease. 

6. Jane acted with discretion. 



66 EXAMPLES. 

7. The horse walked with rapidity. 

8. The orator spoke with eloquence. 

9. They acted with reason. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Change the adjectives and adverbs into phrases : — 

1. Dora is a truthful girl. 

2. Jane is a diligent girl. 

3. Mr. Sheldon is an honorable man. 

4. The teacher is a wise man. 

5. He is a generous man. 

6. They acted wisely. 

7. The boy moved cautiously. 

8. The bird flew swiftly. 

9. I wrote hastily. 

EXERCISE 3. 

In the preceding sentences point out the adjective and the 
adverbial modifiers, and tell -what -words they modify. 

EXAMPLES. 
Mr. Lapham was a man of wealth. 
The phrase "of wealth" is an adjective modifier, 
and modifies man. " Of wealth " = wealthy. 
Mr. Lapham was a wealthy man. 
The artist paints with skill. 

The phrase " with skill " is an adverbial modifier, 
and modifies paints. "With skill" -skilfully. 
The artist paints skilfully. 



THE INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE. 67 

LESSON XXXIV. 

THE INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE. 

Is the boy sick ? Does Dora go to school ? May we 
go to Boston ? It will be noticed that some of these 
verbs consist of two parts ; as, does go and may go. 

In interrogative sentences the subject comes after 
the verb when the verb is one word, and after the first 
part when the verb consists of two or more parts ; as, — 

1. Is — the boy — sick? 

(1) Verb. (2) Subject. (3) Predicate adjective. 

2. Does — Dora — go — to school? 

(2) Subject. (3) Prepositional phrase. 



(1) Verb. 






ay — we 


-go- 


- to Boston. 


(2) Subject. 




(3) Prepositional phi 



3. May 

(1) Verb. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Name the verb, the subject, and the complement. 

1. Is the horse lame? 8. Is the house white? 

2. Does Emma go to school? 9. Do men sell horses? 

3. Is Myra happy? 10. Are the children happy? 

4. May we go to church ? 1 1 . Is the store large ? 

5. Is the bird beautiful? 12. Is the apple good? 

6. Are oranges sweet? 13. Are the pears ripe? 

7. Is Harold a good boy? 14. Do men walk to town? 



68 THE IMPERATIVE SENTENCE. 

15. Is the water hot? 18. Can they see the sun? 

16. Are the trees tall ? 19. Does Bertha read good 
1 7. Has John an apple? books? 

20. Are the flowers fragrant? 



1. Is Sarah ? 

2. Does Albert 

3. Are the birds ? 

4. Does Alice seem - 

5. Are the flowers — 

6. May we go 

7. Do boys learn 

8. Is the sugar ? 



Write interrogative sentences asking something about 
Edgar, Emily, bird, tree, house, Thomas, Jane, Martha, 
stove, carpenter, painter, sugar, lemon, Boston. 



EXERCISE 


2. 


Fill the 


blanks. 




9- 


Is the grass ? 


? 


10. 


Are the grapes ? 


) 


11. 


Do cats catch ? 


? 


12. 


Do men build ? 


-? 


*3- 


Do birds build ? 


? 


14. 


Can you lift that ? 


? 


15- 


Is the house ? 




16. 


Is the water ? 


EXERCISE 


3. 



LESSON XXXV. 

THE IMPERATIVE SENTENCE. 

The imperative sentence has the verb first in the 
order of words ; as, Go to school ; Recite your lesson. 
The subject is generally understood or implied ; as, 






THE EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE. 69 

Go (you, or thou) to school ; Recite (you or ye) your 

lesson. 

1. Go — (you) — to school. 

(1) Verb. (2) Subject. (3) Complement. 

2. Recite — (you) — your lesson. 

(1) Verb. (2) Subject. (3) Complement. 

EXERCISE. 

Write imperative sentences commanding or requiring 
John, Joseph, Emily, and Rose to do something. 

EXAMPLE. 
John, study your book. 

Place a comma after each independent word. 



LESSON XXXVI. 

THE EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE. 

The exclamatory sentence has sometimes the form 
of the declarative sentence, and sometimes nearly that 
of the interrogative sentence ; as, How swiftly that bird 
flies ! " How excellent is thy loving kindness, O God ! " 

EXERCISE 1. 

Write five exclamatory sentences. 
The names of persons addressed may be called inde- 
pendent words, and should generally be separated from 
other words by a comma ; as, Mary, study your book ; 



70 



THE PARAGRAPH. 



John, harness the horse. Mary and John are inde- 
pendent words. 

When sentences begin with such words as here, there, 
where, and when, the subject should follow the verb; as, 
Here is a book; There is an apple ; Where is Charles? 
When is John going ? 

EXERCISE 2. 

Write five interrogative sentences, and use an indepen- 
dent noun with each ; as, Jane, where is Mabel ? Edgar, 
what are you doing ? 

Write five imperative sentences, and use an independent 
noun with each ; as, Mary, take your seat. 

"Write a sentence beginning with each of the following 
words : here, there, where, when* 



LESSON XXXVII. 

THE PARAGRAPH. 

As we have learned, a statement, or sentence, is a 
thought expressed in words. We sometimes, however, 
want to express several thoughts, one after another. 
When we do so, we converse, or discourse ; and what is 
said or written is called either oral or written discourse. 

When we have said all we desire to say on one sub- 
ject, we often think of other subjects we want to say 
something about. What is said on each of these sub- 
jects is a distinct part of discourse, and is called a para- 
graph. 



A SCHOOL-BOY'S LETTER. yi 

This mark (^[), called the paragraph, denotes the 
beginning of a new subject. 

A little space should be left before the first word of a 
paragraph. 

This space is called indentation. 

The indentation is usually sufficient to indicate a new 
paragraph, and the paragraph mark is therefore omitted. 

A SCHOOL-BOY'S LETTER (Imaginary). 



Atzve- v-ee^ ^€4--^ Azz^AA^ £Ae> mod£ <OjC 

lA& £t&rbe>. 



atd=fadA^-awed. <Z/'/tt- dr?/( ui& / /fd tz-ic 



72 



A SCHOOL-BOY'S LETTER. 



dri^ded v-u fa&iltze faced j ut/itc/i €&c&t t 
macA la •c<t<t4> ca^ri^faii wriew '"< r/r fa. 



ds-rle dor?,ei&€ id ^^/ fazi-cze , vU<e,£ t£ 
id OPtsC a/ ^-rie fredi 0/ ifa fti-n^d. t ' ' 

irLe^tf &€Z-n< fa pn,faled£ isid zi^d m&i/ze 
ad 






Zy i^^ewd fa- ^-a rL&wisC we-z^ Qhz, ^ 
tsiidzzi^ fa dee fttfaiel tz-wt^ w^ clj '/ 
Cy -o&sn- tze^ A-eim/.ddian. 

W-O^uid //>'//', 

Note. — It will be readily seen that at each indentation a new 
subject is begun. 

EXERCISE. 

Imagine yourself from home, attending school, or for any 
other purpose, and write a short letter to some friend, 
containing two or more paragraphs. 



LETTER-WRITING. 



73 



LESSON XXXVIII. 

LETTER -WRITING: PARTS OF A LETTER; 
BEGIN LETTERS. 



HOW TO 



I. The superscrip- 
tion, 

comprising 



2. The body of the 

letter, 
comprising 



The siibscrip< 
tion, 

comprising 



PARTS OF A LETTER. 

The parts of a letter are : — 

i. The name of the place where 
the letter is written. 

2. The date (or month, day of the 
month, and the year). 

3. The address (or name, title, and 
residence or place of business, 
of the person addressed). 

4. The salutation, or complimen- 
tary address. 

Whatever the writer wishes to say, 

or 
All between the superscription and 
the subscription. 
f The closing words of esteem, re- 
spect, or affection, 
and 
The name, or signature, of the 
writer. 

Superscription means what is written over or above. 
Subscriptioji means what is written under or below. 



74 DATE, SUPERSCRIPTION, ETC. 

HOW TO BEGIN LETTERS. 

Letters of friendship usually begin with the following 
forms : — 

Dear Friend, Dear Brother, 

My dear Father, — My dear Sister, — 

My dear Alice, My dear Cousin, — 

More formal letters begin as follows : — 

Dear Sir : My dear Sir : 

Rev. and dear Sir : — Dear Mrs. Lowell : 
Dear Mrs. Phillips : Dear Dr. Mitchell : — 

The use of the colon is more formal than* the use of 
the comma ; and the dash added to either increases the 
formality. 

LESSON XXXIX. 

DATE, SUPERSCRIPTION, ETC. 

Every letter should be distinctly dated. 

It is better for letter- writers to name both the town 
and the state where the letter is written, because often 
there is a town of the same name in another state. 

In the letter superscription, write the name of your 
place of residence in the upper right-hand corner of the 
page, and about an inch and a half from the top of the 
page. 



DATE, SUPERSCRIPTION, ETC. 75 

When the name of your post-office is short, the date 
may follow on the same line ; but when the name and 
date require two or more partial lines, begin each suc- 
cessive line a little farther to the right than the preced- 
ing, and always with a capital letter. 



y<ec <f, <f$$s. 



d&czi cy*€zi 






EXERCISE 1. 

Write and punctuate ten superscriptions of letters de- 
signed for friends, according to directions. 



76 DATE, SUPERSCRIPTION, ETC. 

C^u^ud^t, Cyme., &e/i/. *£?, <ffs6. 

BODY OF THE LETTER. 

The body of a letter should usually begin on the next 
line below the salutation, or complimentary address, 
and a little farther to the right, as in the examples 
above. 

On the left there should be a liberal margin, varying 
in width in proportion to the size of the sheet. 

The first line of a paragraph should begin a little 
farther from the margin than the other lines. 

SUBSCRIPTION. 

The subscription should be written under the body 
of the letter at the right hand. If two or more partial 
lines are required, begin each successive one a little 
farther to the right than the preceding, with a capital 
letter, and close with your name, or signature ; as, — 

Yours very truly, 

Henry A. Leonard. 

Letters of friendship close with such expressions as 
the following : — 



FOLDING. yy 

Yours affectionately, Yours sincerely, 

Yours as ever, Your affectionate son, 

Your affectionate daughter, Yours truly, 

Truly yours, Yours very truly, 

Respectfully yours, Your friend. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Write and punctuate ten subscriptions of letters accord- 
ing to directions. 



LESSON XL. 

FOLDING, ETC. 

After a letter has been written, neatly fold it by turn- 
ing up the bottom of it (if commercial note) about one- 
third of the length of the sheet, with first page inside; 
bring the top down over this, press the parts together, 
and enclose it in an envelope. 

ENVELOPE ADDRESS. 

The envelope address consists of three parts : — 

1. The name. 

2. The title. 

3. The residence. 



ABBREVIA TIONS. 

. Cst/lasda / n> 



64-. j/£W^< 



?<<z<£><n€Z>£aw 



•add*. 



-adit 



(Dd'/w-awtr/d 



LESSON XLI. 

ABBREVIATIONS. 

DAYS. 

Sun. Sunday. Wed. Wednesday. 

Man. Monday. Thurs. Thursday. 

Tues. Tuesday. Fri. Friday. 

Sat. Saturday. 

MONTHS. 

Jan. January. May (not abbreviated.) 

Feb. February. fun. June. 

Mar. March. Jul. July. 

Apr. April. Aug. August. 



ABBREVIATIONS. — TITLES. 

Sept. September. Nov. November. 

Oct. October. Dec. December. 

Inst. Of the present month. 

Ult. Of the last month. 

Prox. Of the next month. 



79 







" 


TIME. 






A.C. 


Before Christ. 






AD. 


In the 


year of our Lord. 




AM. 


Before 


noon ; in 


the year of the world. 




B.C. 


Before Christ. 






M. 


Noon. 








PM. 


Afternoon. 

TITLES. 




A.B. 


Bachelor of Arts. 


M.D. 


Doctor of Medicine. 


AM. 


Master of Arts. 


Mr. 


Mister, or Master. 


Capt. 


Captain. 




Mrs. 


Mistress. 


Dr. 


Doctor. 




Ph.D. 


Doctor of Philosophy 


D.D. 


Doctor of Divinity. 


Pres. 


President. 


Gen. 


General. 




Prof. 


Professor. 


Gov. 


Governor. 




Rev. 


Reverend. 


Hon. 


Honorable. 




Esq. 


Esquire. 


LL.D. 


Doctor of Laws. 


Jr. 


Junior. 


Messrs. 


Gentlemen ; 


Sirs. 


Sen. 


Senior. 



Some titles are placed before the name, and others 
after it. Those placed before the name are : — 
Mr., Rev., Dr., Capt., Col., Gen., Hon., Gov., Miss, Mrs. 



go STAMP AND ADDRESS. 

Those placed after the name are : — 

Esq., A.B., A.M., M.D., Ph.D., D.D., LL.D. 

Never write both Mr. and Esq. with the same name ; 
as, Mr. John Smith, Esq. Omit one or the other. 

Do not write Dr. George A. Martin, M.D. Omit the 
title at the beginning or at the end. 

EXERCISE. 

Write ten names with titles preceding ; ten with titles fol- 
lowing, and punctuate. 



LESSON XLII. 

STAMP AND ADDRESS. 

Attach the stamp to the upper right-hand corner of 
the envelope, leaving a slight margin above and at the 
right. 



STAMP AND ADDRESS. 8 1 

The envelope address is sometimes called the super- 
scription. 

EXERCISE. 

Write ten envelope addresses, naming any persons and 
places of residence you think of, and mark the proper 
place for the stamp. 

ENVELOPE ADDRESS. 

It has been customary to place commas between the 
several parts of the envelope address of a letter; but in 
the letter addressed to Mr. John Buffum, it will be 
noticed no commas are used. On this point Prof. A. S. 
Hill says: — 

" In many schools boys and girls are taught to put commas 
between the several parts of the address on the envelope of a 
letter. The rule would be correct if the words forming the 
address were written continuously, as in the body of a book ; 
but the separation of each part of the address from every other 
part alters the question. Consequently some of the most care- 
ful writers either put periods at the end of each line, or leave 
out all stops except those which mark abbreviations." 

When the name of the town and the name of the 
state are written on the same line, they should be sepa- 
rated by a comma ; as, Portlaiid, Me, 

Note. — After having carefully studied the Directions for Letter- 
Writing, the pupils might write short letters to their fathers, moth- 
ers, brothers, sisters, or friends, to be corrected by their teacher. 



82 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

LESSON XLIII. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

A relative pronoun is a connective word that re- 
lates to some preceding word, called its antecedent. 

A clause is a combination of words, containing the 
elements (subject and predicate) of a sentence. 

Note. — The clause never asserts, but is used to modify some 
word in the principal sentence. 

The boy who studies will improve. 

"Who" is a relative pronoun, relates to "boy" as its 
antecedent, and is the subject of "studies." 

"Who" introduces the clause "who studies," and 
joins the complete clause "who studies" to "boy," 
and the clause modifies "boy" like an adjective. 

The simple relatives are who, which, that, and what. 

"Who" is the subject form; "whom," the object 
form; "whose," the possessive form. 

"Which " has a common form for subject and object. 

"Whose" is the possessive form. 

"What " and "that " do not change their forms. 

Relative pronouns have the same form for both num- 
bers. 

"What" has no antecedent expressed, and sometimes 
" who " is used without an antecedent ; as, I know what 
he did. "Who steals my money steals trash." 






COMPOUND PRONOUNS. ^ 

EXERCISE 1. 

Select the relative pronouns, tell the clauses they introduce, 
and the words to which they join the clauses as modi- 
fiers. 

i . The boy who was sick is now well. 

2. The apple that you gave me is sweet. 

3. The man whom I saw has disappeared. 

4. The watch that was lost is found. 

5. The books which I read are good. 

6. The lambs which I saw were playful. 

7. Roses which are red are beautiful. 

8. Horses which draw loads are useful. 

9. I know what he did. 

10. I know who has come. 

11. John found an orange, which he ate. 

12. The picture which you gave me is beautiful. 

13. The friend whom I visited is sick. 

14. Mary has found the pencil which she lost. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Write five sentences, each containing a relative pronoun. 

COMPOUND PRONOUNS. 

The compound or indefinite forms are : whoever, who- 
soever ; whichever, whichsoever; whatever > and whatso- 
ever. 

EXERCISE 3. 

Write five sentences, each containing a compound relative 
pronoun. 



8 4 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

LESSON XLIV. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used to in- 
troduce a question; as, Who is he? Whom did you 
see ? Whose book is this ? What pencil is this ? 

The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what. 

" Who " always refers to persons ; as, Who is at the 
door ? 

The form " whose" denotes ownership; as, Whose 
knife is this ? 

" Which" and "what," when followed by a noun, are 
interrogative adjectives ; as, Which book did you take ? 
What apple is this ? 

EXERCISE 1. 

Select the interrogative pronouns, and, if adjectives, tell 
what nouns they limit. 

i. Who is the man? 5. Who did the work? 

2. Who is she? 6. Whom did you see? 

3. Whose slate is this? 7. What books are these? 

4. Who wrote the letter? 8. What boy is that? 

9. Which pen will you take? 
10. Which of the two boys is the older? 

EXERCISE 2. 

Write three sentences containing interrogative pronouns, 
using who, whose, and whom ; three, using which ; three, 
using what. 



PRESENT, PAST, AND FUTURE TIME. 85 

LESSON XLV. 

PRESENT, PAST, AND FUTURE TIME. 

Verbs have different forms to denote present, past, 
and future time. 



Present. 


Past. 


Future. 


I walk 


I walked 


I shall walk 


He sees 


he saw 


he will see 


I am 


I was 


I shall be. 



Note. — Shall or will, used before the simple verb-form, denotes 
future time. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Select the verbs, and tell whether they denote present, past, 
or future time. 

1. He is a good boy. 6. We were in town. 

2. John was there. 7. I was happy. 

3. James will be there. 8. You were there. 

4. I shall go to town. 9. You shall go. 

5. We shall be in Boston. 10. He shall go. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Fill the blanks with suitable verbs. 



I. 


I at home. 


6. 


We in Salem. 


2. 


You sad. 


7- 


You at home. 


3- 


He there. 


8. 


They diligent. 


4- 


She happy. 


9- 


We there. 


5- 


It good. 


10. 


They anxious. 



86 THE INFINITIVE AND THE PARTICIPLE. 

EXERCISE 3. 

Write five statements, each containing a verb denoting 
present time ; five others, each containing a verb denot- 
ing past time ; five others, each containing a verb denot- 
ing future time. 



LESSON XLVI. 

THE INFINITIVE AND THE PARTICIPLE. 
THE INFINITIVE. 

There are two special forms of the verb, called the 
infinitive and the participle. 

The word to is generally placed before the infinitive, 
and taken with it as a part of the expression. 

The infinitive, in its nature, is partly verb and partly 
noun, and for this reason it is often called a verbal noun. 

For use, it usually depends upon a verb, noun, or an 

adjective. 

John walks to improve his health. 

Sarah is anxious to learn. 

An order to retreat was given. 

Edwin desires to succeed. 

EXERCISE 1. 

Point out the infinitives, and tell to -what they are attached, 
or of -what verb they are subject or object. 

i. Mary rides to gratify her taste. 
2. Annie seems to be anxious. 



THE INFINITIVE AND THE PARTICIPLE. $j 

3. Albert desires to go home. 

4. A request to go was granted. 

5. To see is' to believe. 

6. The time to depart is at hand. 

7. Dora desires to succeed. 

8. He will think of it in time to come. 

9. Strive to do good. 

10. Be slow to speak. 

11. Mary intends to return to school. 

12. The boys are not ready to go. 

13. Charles wanted to borrow my pencil. 

14. His time to die had not yet come. 

15. The girls desired to learn to sing. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Write five sentences, each containing an infinitive. 

THE PARTICIPLE. 
The participle, in its nature, is partly verb and partly 
adjective. 

Note. — It is called participle, because it participates of the prop- 
erties of a verb and of an adjective. 

It relates to, or is used with, nouns and pronouns, like 
adjectives. 

One form of it always ends in ing, called the present 
participle. There is another form ending in ed, d, en, 
t, etc., called the perfect participle. 



88 THE INFINITIVE AND THE PARTICIPLE. 

Egbert, meeting his friend, invited him to his home. 

Charles, finding a bird, fed it. 

He lived, loved and honored by all. 

Meeting relates to Egbert; finding, to Charles; and 
loved and honored to He. 

Ask yourself the following questions : — 

Who meeting his friend? 

Who finding a bird ? 

Who lived, loved and honored? 

EXERCISE 3. 

Select the participles, and tell the noun or pronoun to 
•which each relates. 

i. I saw the man walking in the garden. 

2. They found the child sleeping. 

3. Susan found the cup broken. 

4. We saw the birds eating cherries. 

5. He looked up and saw his mother standing before him. 

6. John found the door fastened. 

7. I heard some girls singing merrily. 

8. The boy returned with his coat torn. 

9. The snow, falling rapidly, soon covered the ground. 

10. The exercise written by Dora was excellent. 

1 1 . A man deserving blame should be censured. 

12. Honor, defined by Cicero, is the approbation of good 

men. 



ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE. 

13. Mary, seeing her mother, ran to meet her. 

14. We saw the boys playing ball. 

15. They found the chest locked. 

EXERCISE 4. 

Write five sentences, each containing a participle. 



LESSON XLVII. 

ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE. 

A sentence is a thought expressed in words. 

The elements of a sentence are the words, phrases, 
and clauses of which it is composed. 

The principal elements are the subject-noun and 
the predicate-verb. 

A simple sentence contains but one subject and one 
finite verb. 

(Subject) Men I Walk. (Predicate) 

Elements used to modify the principal elements are 
modifying elements. 

Elements used to modify nouns and pronouns are 
adjective elements. 

Elements used to modify verbs, adjectives, and ad- 
verbs are adverbial elements. 

The subject-noun is the noun alone. 

The predicate-verb is the verb alone. 



9 o 



ANALYSIS. 



The subject-noun, with its modifiers, is the modified 
subject. 

The predicate-verb, with its modifiers, is the modified 
p7rdicate. 

Note. — The modified subject and the modified predicate are 
also called the complete subject and the complete predicate. 

Modified Subjects. Modified Predicates. 

Some men i walk rapidly. 
Some men of energy walk very rapidly. 
Some men who have energy ! walk with rapidity. 

In the first sentence, Men (the subject-noun) is modi- 
fied by some ; and walk (the predicate-verb) is modified 
by rapidly. 

In the second sentence, Men is modified by some and 
the phrase of energy ; and walk is modified by rapidly, 
which is modified by very. 

In the third sentence, Men is modified by some and 
the clause who have energy ; and walk is modified by 
the phrase with rapidity. 



LESSON XLVIII. 

ANALYSIS. 

Analysis is the separation of a sentence into the 
elements of which it is composed. 



METHOD OF ANALYSIS. g t 

METHOD OF ANALYSIS. 

A simple sentence may be analyzed by stating, — 
i. The kind of sentence. 

2. The complete subject. 

3. The complete predicate. 

4. The subject-noun with its modifiers. 

5. The predicate-verb with its modifiers. 

MODEL. 

1. Tlie smoke rises gracefully. 
This is a simple declarative sentence. 

Complete subject : The smoke. 

Complete predicate : Rises gracefully. 

Subject-noun : Smoke, modified by the. 

Predicate- verb : Rises, modified by gracefully. 

Note 1. — The work may be done orally, or in writing. When 
the subject or predicate has no modifying words, it is complete in 
itself. 

Note 2. — Before analyzing any other kind of a sentence, ar- 
range the words in the order of the declarative sentence. 

2. Are trie apples ripe? 

Trie apples are ripe. (Changed.) 

This is a simple interrogative sentence. 
Complete subject : The apples. 
Complete predicate : A)-e ripe. 
Subject-noun : Apples, modified by the. 

Predicate-verb : Are, completed by ripe, which 

modifies apples. 



g 2 METHOD OF ANALYSIS. 

3. How the wild storm rages ! 

The wild storm rages how. (Changed.) 
This is a simple exclamatory sentence. 

Complete subject : The wild storm. , 

Complete predicate : Rages how. 
Subject-noun : Storm, modified by the and wild. 

Predicate-verb : Rages, modified by how. 

4. Go to school. 

(You) go to school. (Changed.) 

This is a simple imperative sentence. 

Complete subject : You (understood). 
Complete predicate : Go to school. 
Subject-noun: You (understood). 

Predicate-verb : Go, modified by the phrase to 

school. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences: — 

i. Some birds sing sweetly. 

2. The orange is sweet. 

3. The trees grow rapidly. 

4. Humility is the foundation of all virtue. 

5. The man walks hastily. 

6. James has a good apple. 

7. Has Alice recited her lesson? 

8. How rapidly the orator speaks ! 

9. How fast the horse runs ! 



93 



SYNTHESIS. 

10. Come to me. 

ii. Religion exalts a nation. 

12. Good boys obey their teachers. 

13. Are the apples ripe? 

14. The smoke rises gracefully. 

15. The little girl has a new dress. 

16. The lesson is not difficult. 

1 7. Mary wants a sweet orange. 

18. How it rains ! 

19. The boy went to school early, 

20. The horse was in the field. 

21. Forgive your enemies. 

22. Some rivers are shallow. 

23. Albert recited his lesson. 

24. Mark has a new book. 

25. The heavens declare the glory of God. 

26. Large trees grow in California. 



LESSON XLIX. 

SYNTHESIS, OR COMBINATION OF SIMPLE SEN- 
TENCES. 

Sometimes several separate statements may be com- 
bined or condensed into one sentence, containing only 
one finite verb. 



94 EXPANSION. 

SYNTHESIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. 
SEPARATE STATEMENTS. 

Mr. Gate built a house. He built it in 1885. It is a beau- 
tiful house. He built it for his son. 

SIMPLE SENTENCE. 

In 1885, Mr. Gate built a beautiful house for his son. 

EXERCISE. 

Combine the sets of statements into simple sentences. 

1. The orator finished his speech. He sat down. 

2. Oranges grow. Many oranges grow. They grow in Florida. 

They are delicious. 

3. Neal Mitchell is a doctor. He is a skilful physician. He 

lives in Jacksonville. 

4. Mr. Bond has a horse. The horse is young. The horse 

is beautiful. 

5. There are mountains in Switzerland. They are very high. 

They are difficult to ascend. 

6. Emma has a dress. It is a new dress. It is a silk dress. 

It is made in the latest fashion. 



LESSON L. 

EXPANSION. 

Words may be changed to phrases, and phrases to 
clauses. 



CONDENSATION. 95 

1. Wise men improve time. 
Men of wisdom improve time. 

Men who have wisdom improve time. 

2. Truthful boys are respected. 
Boys of truth are respected. 

Boys who are truthful are respected. 

Such changes are called expansion. Reverse the 
process, and* we have contraction of clauses and phrases 
into words, called 

CONDENSATION. 

1. Men who have wisdom improve time. 
Men of wisdom improve time. 

Wise men improve time. 

2. Boys who are truthful sue respected. 
Boys of truth are respected. 
Truthful boys are respected. 

EXERCISE. 

Expand and condense the following sentences : — 

Wealthy men are often unhappy. 
Honorable men are respected. 

3. Singing birds are desirable. 

4. Able men should conduct the affairs of state. 

5. Strong horses draw heavy loads. 



9 6 METHOD OF PARSING. 

LESSON LI. 

A BRIEF METHOD OF PARSING. 

After carefully looking at the sentence, we should 

select, — 

i. The verb. 2. Its subject. 

3. Its object (if it takes one). 

These are the principal or necessary words of a sen- 
tence. All the other words are used to modify these, 
directly or indirectly. 

Some sentences have the three essential parts ; others 
have only the first two. 

MODEL. 

1. Some heroic boys study their hard lessons 
faithfully. 

Study is the verb. 

Boys is its subject. 

Lessons is its object. 

Some and heroic qualify boys. 

Their and hard qualify lessons. 

Faithfully modifies study. 

Note. — It will aid the pupil to consider which principal word in 
the sentence is modified by each of the other words. 

2. These ripe peaches are very delicious. 
Are is the verb. 
Peaches is its subject. 



METHOD OF PARSING. 



97 



These and ripe qualify peaches. 

Delicious is a predicate modifier of peaches. 

Very modifies delicious. 

Note. — Delicious is called a predicate modifier because, in addi- 
tion to qualifying peaches, it is used with are to complete the predi- 
cation. 

3. Jorm appears sad. 

Appears is the verb. 

John is its subject. 

Sad is a predicate modifier of John. 

4. Mary is a good girl. 
Is is the verb. 

Mary is its subject. 

Girl is a predicate noun, or explanatory modifier of Mary. 

Good qualifies girl. 

5. Tlie door was closed by Charles. 

Was closed is the verb (passive form) . 

Door is its subject. 

The limits door. 

By is a preposition, showing the relation of Charles to was 

closed ; and the phrase modifies was closed. 

Remember: Phrases joined to nouns are adjective modifiers. 
Phrases joined to verbs are adverbial modifiers. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse the following sentences : — 

i. The laborer is worthy of his reward. 
2. Henry has studied his lesson. 



9 8 METHOD OF PARSING. 

3. Dora loves her mother. 

4. Perseverance overcomes difficulties. 

5. These apples are ripe. 

6. Temperance promotes health. 

7. God loves a cheerful giver. 

8. Napoleon crossed the Alps. 

9. Some men are greatly admired. 

10. Intemperance has been the ruin of many. 

1 1 . Martha is the best scholar in her class. 

12. The darkest night will pass away. 

13. True courage is cool and calm. 

14. Good habits are maintained by constant effort. 

15. There is a day of sunny rest for every dark and troubled 

night. 



LESSON LII. 

ANOTHER METHOD OF PARSING. 

If a longer and more formal method should be de- 
sired, the following may be used : — 

1. This good boy loves his kind mother. 
Loves is the verb (transitive). 
Boy is its subject (masculine noun, singular). 
Mother is its object (feminine noun, singular). 
Good is a qualifying adjective (good, better, best), and modi- 
fies boy. 



METHOD OF PARSING. 



99 



This is a limiting adjective, and limits boy. 

Kind is a qualifying adjective (kind, kinder, kindest), and 

qualifies mother. 
His is a personal pronoun (possessive), and limits mother. 

2. Has the doctor come ? 
Has co?ne is the verb (intransitive) . 
Doctor is its subject (masculine or feminine noun). 
The is a limiting adjective, and limits doctor. 

3. Mr. Gay, trie teacher, enjoyed his long vaca- 
tion much. 

Enjoyed is the verb (transitive). 

Mr. Gay is its subject (proper masculine noun, singular). 

Vacation is its object (neuter noun, singular). 

Much is an adverb, and modifies enjoyed. 

Teacher is an explanatory noun, and modifies Mr. Gay. 

The is a limiting adjective, and limits teacher. 

Long is a qualifying adjective (long, longer, longest), and 

qualifies vacation. 
His is a pronoun (possessive), and limits vacation. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse the following sentences : — 

i. Charles is the most studious boy in school. 

2. Tall trees grow in Florida. 

3. Wise men lay up knowledge. 

4. Politeness is not always a sign of wisdom. 



METHOD OF PARSING. 

5. A clear conscience fears no accusation. 

6. Diligence is the mistress of success. 

7. Humility is the foundation of all virtue. 

8. Manners often make fortunes. 

9. The price of wisdom is above rubies. 

10. Crosses are ladder^ leading to Heaven. 

11. Procrastination is the thief of time. 

12. Idleness is the parent of many vices. 

13. It is never too late to learn. 

14. Regrets are both useless and sinful. 

15. Look upon the bright side of your condition. 

16. The brightest stars are burning suns. 

17. A small unkindness is a great offence. 

18. The deepest water stillest runs. 



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